Esters are important solvents in multiple industries including adhesives, food, and pharmaceuticals. Although esters are biodegradable solvents, the conventional process of producing them is not eco-friendly because they are largely derived from petrochemicals. This has led scientists to consider implementing biological routes in their production process by incorporating heterologous or improving inherent esterification pathways. However, due to inequality in the biosynthesis of esters and their precursors (organic acid and alcohol), a significant amount of precursors are left unconverted, thereby lowering overall esterification efficiency. Therefore, the primary goal of the current research is to improve the ester titers by incorporating one more step of in vitro esterification with the culture broth, thereby esterifying the unconverted precursors using high efficiency commercial enzymes in the presence of compatible organic solvent. In principle, the medium containing the precursors will be treated with the enzyme in presence of organic solvent, where the precursors will be distributed in both the phases, aqueous and organic, based on their polarity, and the enzymatic esterification will happen at the interface. Hence, as a first step, efforts were made to optimize the reaction conditions, beginning with choosing the most efficient organic solvent and corresponding enzyme candidate. Our results showed that, for production of ethyl acetate through this reactive extraction approach, Novozyme435 exhibited significant esterification with chloroform, with almost 85% conversion efficiency. Further optimizations with phase ratios, pH and incubation time showed that the pH 6.0 (3.1 g/L) was the most optimum where ethyl acetate titer was found to improve 10 times than that at pH 7.0 (0.164 g/L) with the phase ratio of 1:1. The kinetic studies further added that the incubation at 37oC gives the maximum ethyl acetate production within 8h. After initial optimization studies, cell broth from E. coli cells transformed to overproduce an esterase was also tested with the reactive extraction method. It was found that there was a ~7.5X decrease in ethyl acetate production in the cell media versus synthetic samples with the same concentration of reactants. Such a large decrease indicates that enzymatic promiscuity or inhibition currently prevent the cell samples from reaching the same conversion as synthetic studies. To characterize the maximum reaction rate (Vmax) and affinity constants of the substrates to Novozym 435, further kinetic studies were performed with one minute of reaction. The mathematical model employed assumes that enzyme kinetics rather than diffusion was the rate limiting step, that the concentrations of reactants at the interface are equivalent to the initial concentration of reactants, and that neither substrate is an inhibitor. Vmax was found to be 18.5 Mmol min-1g-1 (of catalyst used), and the affinity constants were 0.957 M and 0.00557 M for acetic acid and ethanol respectively. Vmax was similar to literature values with Novozym 435, and the affinity constants indicate a much higher binding efficiency of ethanol in comparison to acetic acid, indicating that a cocktail of esters are likely produced from Novozym 435 in cell broth. Overall, moving away from fossil-fuel dependence is necessary to promote sustainable industry standards, and microbial cell factories combined with reactive extraction, if optimized for industrial applications, can replace harmful environmental procedures. By optimizing the reactive extraction process for ester production, biorefineries could become more competitive and economically feasible for numerous applications.

It is a fact of modern food processing that the majority of products contain one or multiple food additives. Yet, while these additives see great abundance of use, the average consumer has relatively little knowledge about them and, more often than not, a negative opinion of their inclusion. This piece explores the discrepancy between these two realities by delving into the origins, histories of use, health effects, and misconceptions that surround a number of modern food additives, exploring along the way the social changes and regulatory history that brought about the legal landscape of food safety in the United States. Ten author-developed recipes are included at the end to encourage not only a conceptual, but also a practical familiarity with these same food additives.

The main scope of this study was to analyze the impact support and identity have on the collegiate athletic career transition process. While student-athletes undergo a variety of transitions, this study focused on the career transition out of collegiate athletics regardless of their reason for leaving or their next steps. The motivation for conducting this research is to take the challenges and recommendations to the next steps and reform the common practice of career transition and provide assistance to athletes facing adversity in this position. A study on 32 voluntary student-athletes in different phases of the transition process ranging from current student-athletes to graduated student-athletes years detached from their sport was conducted via electronic questionnaire. Questions about demographics and their personal experiences relating to identity, support, and transition as a whole were asked regarding their time as student-athletes through their transition (if applicable). Through analyzing the responses and previous literature, it is evident that support is necessary from the early stages as a student-athlete through their transition out of the sport to minimize the negative impact. It is also apparent that one's athletic identity is established early on in their career and is difficult to dissociate from to rediscover a personal identity not connected to athletic performance. Knowing what we do now, there are limitations in the findings such as within the demographics, questionnaire, and clarity. This would be beneficial to research and study further to optimize a solution to assist in the athletic career transition process and alleviate additional barriers athletes face when no longer having their sport.

The Sonoran Desert in the Southwest region of the United States and the Northwest corner of Mexico is defined by low precipitation rates that are episodal, oscillating between years of higher yields than average and then below average levels. Water is essential for life and in the region, the lack of water proves an obstacle for people that must be faced to live and thrive there. Yet, millions of people live in this desert region and more people are moving currently. As current water resources are straining not only under increasing population but also with higher frequency and lengths of droughts in the region, water is becoming an important topic for future plans in the Sonoran Desert. However, a vast array of plants and animals have lived under these conditions by adapting to the low precipitation rates. By looking at the common flora and fauna of the region, humans may learn how to better live in the Sonoran Desert through biomimicry, the imitation of life. The natural design and processes of life in the Sonoran Desert can be studied to find ways to conserve, store and collect water for human consumption ensuring longevity within the region and beyond as water insecurity increases globally.

Poor medication adherence is a widespread healthcare issue that directly impacts the effectiveness of the medication and the overall health of the patient. Wellth is a smartphone application offered to users challenged with managing chronic conditions to improve medication adherence through daily reminders and monthly financial incentives to help members form healthy habits. The study examined the effects of financial incentives on the medication adherence of members according to their characteristics including their age, gender, and location of residence in addition to the health conditions they were battling during a 5-month Wellth program. In this study, adherence was defined as the percent of days the users checked in all their medications within a ±3-hour task window while timely adherence was when check-ins were submitted in a narrower window of ±1-hour. Wellth demonstrated both positive and negative relationships between specific patients and adherence. By comparing the findings with the existing literature, patterns were evaluated, and hypotheses were made. The severity of the member’s illness and vulnerability to consequences seemed to go be joint factors. The complexities of medication regimens, side effects, and symptoms associated with their health condition affected patient motivation. Economic factors including financial status, healthcare access, and level of knowledge could also be used as an explanation. This study is important because it helps develop and implement effective adherence programs for different kinds of patients by examining what type of patients for whom incentives work best using a mobile app. Essentially, this helps target features and design new programs for those who did not respond well to financial incentives.

Aminoglycosides contain a basic unit of an amino-modified glycoside (sugar) and have potent antibacterial properties used to treat a wide range of bacterial infections, including those that occur in the soft tissue, chest, urinary tract, and endocardial tissue.1, 2 With a broad spectrum of activity and convenient dosing schedule, Aminoglycoside helps to effectively fight off Gram-negative bacteria.1, 3 In 1944 an aminoglycoside called streptomycin entered clinical trials to test its effectiveness as an antibiotic.4 After several years other classes of aminoglycosides were discovered such as neomycin, gentamicin, kanamycin, and netilmicin.4 When introduced these antibiotics presented major clinical advancements in the treatment of Tuberculosis and other bacterial infections.3, 4 However their use in modern medicine has diminished due to their toxicity, required parenteral delivery, and the availability of alternative antibiotics.3, 5 The dose-dependent toxicity of aminoglycosides limits their use due to a narrow range of safe aminoglycoside plasma concentrations.3, 5 Exceeding this range in non-target tissues can lead to negative effects on the audio-vestibular apparatus and kidneys.3, 5, 6 In the 1980’s, clinicians began treating infections with antibiotics that were perceived as less toxic and providing broader antibacterial activity.7 This resulted in aminoglycosides being prescribed for more persistent infections that were resistant to other antibiotics.3 With the amount of antibiotic resistant bacteria increasing, many scientists have begun looking into methods for minimizing aminoglycoside toxicity and maximizing its antibacterial activity.3, 8 These methods include encapsulation and polymer conjugation.9, 10 By encapsulating aminoglycosides in liposomes or other vesicles scientists aim to increase its concentration in infected tissues while decreasing nephro- and ototoxicity.9 With conjugated polymers scientists have created polymer complexes containing aminoglycosides and other compounds such as dopamine.11 The goal of these polymers is to limit toxicity by slowing antibiotic release and increasing efficacy of the antibiotic through targeted delivery and toxicity of other compounds.9, 10, 11 Other than its use in treating infections, aminoglycosides are gaining attention as an excellent vehicle for gene delivery.12 In this application aminoglycosides are used to correct a genetic defect by introducing a normal copy of the gene into affected cells.12,13 Currently scientists are assessing aminoglycosides for gene therapy in the treatment of cancer and various other diseases.12, 14 This review will focus on the diverse customizability of aminoglycosides in treating infections and as vehicles for gene therapy.