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Germ-free, or GF, animals are laboratory animals that completely lack microbes, making them useful tools for microbiome research. Researchers create GF animals in laboratories by delivering the newborn animals in a way that protects them from microbes, which are microscopic organisms such as bacteria and viruses. They then house the

Germ-free, or GF, animals are laboratory animals that completely lack microbes, making them useful tools for microbiome research. Researchers create GF animals in laboratories by delivering the newborn animals in a way that protects them from microbes, which are microscopic organisms such as bacteria and viruses. They then house the GF animals in sterile conditions to ensure that the animals stay germ free. The creation of GF animals began in the late nineteenth century. Prior to that, scientists had no way to study the effects of the microbiome on overall health. The creation of GF animals allowed researchers to examine the microbiome under controlled conditions. They could colonize the animal with specific microbes and study their effects on the animal's health without the confounding presence of other microbes. Researchers have used GF animals as a living model to study the microbiome, which has provided evidence for a relationship between the microbiome and health, including a role for the microbiome in shaping the development of multiple body systems.
ContributorsZhou,Maggie (Author) / Pillai, Megha (Editor)
Created2024-05-24
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In 2012, Stephen Sidney, T. Craig Cheetham, FrederickA. Connell, and colleagues published "Recent Combined Hormonal Contraceptives (CHCs) and the Risk of Thromboembolism and Other Cardiovascular Events in New Users," hereafter "Combined Hormonal Contraceptives" in Contraception. The authors gathered records of major cardiovascular events in patients who were using combined hormonal

In 2012, Stephen Sidney, T. Craig Cheetham, FrederickA. Connell, and colleagues published "Recent Combined Hormonal Contraceptives (CHCs) and the Risk of Thromboembolism and Other Cardiovascular Events in New Users," hereafter "Combined Hormonal Contraceptives" in Contraception. The authors gathered records of major cardiovascular events in patients who were using combined hormonal contraceptive treatments, or CHCs. A CHC is a birth control medication that contains both estrogen and progestin hormones. The CHCs of focus, which the authors referred to as the study CHCs, included a pill, patch, and vaginal ring that the US Food and Drug Administration, or FDA, recently approved at the time of publication. The researchers compared the rates of cardiovascular events between users of the study CHCs to users of established CHCs to find any increased cardiovascular risk. "Combined Hormonal Contraceptives" showed that the study CHCs did come with some increased cardiovascular risk, and reconfirmed the known cardiovascular risks of CHCs in general, providing safety information for people who may want to start birth control.

ContributorsPillai, Megha (Editor) / Jacobson, Molly (Author)
Created2024-05-29
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Arnold Henry Kegel worked and carried out research in the medical field of gynecology in the US during the twentieth century. Through his work, Kegel was one of the first to describe what researchers call Kegel exercises, which strengthen the pelvic floor muscles, or the muscles that extend from the

Arnold Henry Kegel worked and carried out research in the medical field of gynecology in the US during the twentieth century. Through his work, Kegel was one of the first to describe what researchers call Kegel exercises, which strengthen the pelvic floor muscles, or the muscles that extend from the pelvis to the tailbone and support the internal reproductive organs, bladder, and bowel. Kegel observed that weakened pelvic floor muscles could cause disorders like urinary incontinence, when a person loses partial or complete bladder control, and pelvic organ prolapse, which is when the pelvic floor cannot adequately support organs in the pelvic region, causing them to fall out of place. Kegel was also one of the first to find that females could strengthen their pelvic floors through exercises, which provided an alternative to invasive surgeries to repair those muscles. Kegel helped discern the role that the pelvic floor plays in reproductive health, and he developed simple methods to strengthen the pelvic floor that could, in turn, improve sexual and reproductive health in females and males of all ages.
ContributorsJohnson,Madelyn (Author) / Pillai, Megha (Editor)
Created2024-05-29
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Hideyo Noguchi researched bacteria, including Treponema pallidum, the bacterium that causes syphilis, in Japan and the US during the early 1900s. Syphilis is a bacterial infection that spreads primarily through sexual transmission and can cause symptoms such as rashes, genital sores, and even organ damage. Noguchi recognized that Treponema pallidum

Hideyo Noguchi researched bacteria, including Treponema pallidum, the bacterium that causes syphilis, in Japan and the US during the early 1900s. Syphilis is a bacterial infection that spreads primarily through sexual transmission and can cause symptoms such as rashes, genital sores, and even organ damage. Noguchi recognized that Treponema pallidum causes neurosyphilis, which is when the syphilis infection spreads to the covering of the brain, the brain itself, or the spinal cord. Before Noguchi's work, researchers knew about Treponema pallidum and the symptoms of the disease but did not know that untreated syphilis could lead to neurosyphilis. Additionally, Noguchi worked to alter and improve methods to diagnose syphilis. Noguchi's work helped future researchers and doctors better diagnose people with syphilis and assisted them in understanding how to treat the disease's long-term side effects.
ContributorsSwaminathan,Srivatsan (Author) / Pillai, Megha (Editor)
Created2024-05-30
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A vasectomy is a surgery that works to inhibit reproduction by interrupting the passage of sperm through the vas deferens, a tube in the male reproductive system. The procedure is a method of inhibiting an individual's ability to cause pregnancy through sexual intercourse without altering the other functions of the

A vasectomy is a surgery that works to inhibit reproduction by interrupting the passage of sperm through the vas deferens, a tube in the male reproductive system. The procedure is a method of inhibiting an individual's ability to cause pregnancy through sexual intercourse without altering the other functions of the penis and testes. In the US, into the early 1900s, proponents of eugenics, the belief that human populations can be made better by selecting for so-called desirable traits, used the procedure to forcibly sterilize people whom they deemed undesirable. Despite its early associations with eugenics, physicians' use of vasectomy eventually transitioned into an option for elective contraception. Even with the various shifts in motivation for performing vasectomies, as of 2024, individuals have the choice to undergo a sterilization procedure if they want to restrict their own ability to have children.

ContributorsNichols,Cole (Author) / Pillai, Megha (Editor)
Created2024-05-31
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On 1 February 1998, David T. Helm, Sara Miranda, and Naomi Angoff Chedd published "Prenatal Diagnosis of Down Syndrome: Mothers' Reflections on Supports Needed From Diagnosis to Birth," hereafter "Mothers' Reflections," in the journal Mental Retardation. In 2007,Mental Retardation changed its name toIntellectual and Developmental Disabilities.Down syndrome is the result

On 1 February 1998, David T. Helm, Sara Miranda, and Naomi Angoff Chedd published "Prenatal Diagnosis of Down Syndrome: Mothers' Reflections on Supports Needed From Diagnosis to Birth," hereafter "Mothers' Reflections," in the journal Mental Retardation. In 2007,Mental Retardation changed its name toIntellectual and Developmental Disabilities.Down syndrome is the result of an extra copy or partial copy of chromosome 21, also known as Trisomy 21. It is characterized by traits such as intellectual disabilities, differing facial features, and a high risk for heart disease. In the study, the authors interviewed ten mothers, all of whom had elected to continue with their pregnancy after a prenatal diagnosis of Down syndrome, about their experiences with health care professionals. The article provides suggestions for health care professionals, such as providing up-to-date materials and unbiased information and avoiding judgmental language, so that when mothers receive a prenatal diagnosis of a developmental disability, they are prepared and supported.
ContributorsRauch,Grace (Author) / Pillai, Megha (Editor)
Created2024-06-04
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In 2005, Helen O'Connell and colleagues published "Anatomy of the Clitoris," a review article, in The Journal of Urology. The article was one of the first to provide a complete anatomical description of the clitoris, which is the organ involved in female sexual pleasure. In addition, O'Connell and her team

In 2005, Helen O'Connell and colleagues published "Anatomy of the Clitoris," a review article, in The Journal of Urology. The article was one of the first to provide a complete anatomical description of the clitoris, which is the organ involved in female sexual pleasure. In addition, O'Connell and her team relay that researchers have historically misunderstood and misrepresented the anatomy of the clitoris. They point out that even though researchers began accurately describing the anatomy of the clitoris in the 1840s, most anatomy textbooks in 2005 still omitted or inaccurately described the structure. The team argues that those omissions not only hinder surgeons' ability to perform surgery on the clitoris but also reflect a dominant culture of misvaluing the female body. "Anatomy of the Clitoris" helps correct historical misconceptions about clitoral anatomy and promotes accurate representation of female anatomy in educational textbooks and academic settings.
ContributorsEdwards, Baylee A. (Author) / Pillai, Megha (Editor)
Created2023-11-13
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In 1998, urologists Marc Goldstein, Philip Shihua Li, and Gerald J. Matthews published "Microsurgical Vasovasostomy: The Microdot Technique of Precision Suture Placement" hereafter "The Microdot Technique," in The Journal of Urology. The authors describe a novel technique for reversing a vasectomy, which blocks a patient's flow of sperm, preventing the

In 1998, urologists Marc Goldstein, Philip Shihua Li, and Gerald J. Matthews published "Microsurgical Vasovasostomy: The Microdot Technique of Precision Suture Placement" hereafter "The Microdot Technique," in The Journal of Urology. The authors describe a novel technique for reversing a vasectomy, which blocks a patient's flow of sperm, preventing the patient from fertilizing a partner's egg. The technique relies on the placement of microscopic dots to guide the placement of the stitches that reconnect the vasa deferentia, which is a part of the male reproductive system. The authors, working from the Center for Male Reproduction and Microsurgery at Weill Cornell Medicine in New York City, New York, published the article to instruct surgeons on how to properly employ the surgical technique and provide data to indicate the technique's effectiveness. Through the publication of "The Microdot Technique," Goldstein, Li, and Matthews provide guidelines to conduct a more successful and accurate method of a vasovasostomy.
ContributorsNichols,Cole (Author) / Pillai, Megha (Editor)
Created2023-11-21
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Smile Train is a non-profit organization that Brian Mullaney and Charles Wang founded in 1999 in New York City, New York, that provides resources and trains medical staff in over ninety countries to give free surgeries to children in need of cleft repair. Clefts are birth defects that affect one

Smile Train is a non-profit organization that Brian Mullaney and Charles Wang founded in 1999 in New York City, New York, that provides resources and trains medical staff in over ninety countries to give free surgeries to children in need of cleft repair. Clefts are birth defects that affect one in 700 children all over the world. They occur when the roof of the mouth, or palate, the lip, or both have a gap or split, because the tissues and bones did not fuse properly during fetal development. Surgeons typically repair clefts within the first year of life because clefts can often cause problems with eating, speaking, breathing, and hearing. Beyond providing cleft surgeries, Smile Train also supports the needs of children with clefts with services such as speech therapy, dental care, and psychological and nutritional support. Smile Train helps provide better access to cleft surgery and care for thousands of children worldwide, which improves the quality of life for people born with the developmental condition.
ContributorsRauch,Grace (Author) / Pillai, Megha (Editor)
Created2024-02-06
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In May 2017, Alice Lee, Fiona E. Gibbon, and Kimberley Spivey published "Children's Attitudes Toward Peers With Unintelligible Speech Associated With Cleft Lip and/or Palate," hereafter "Children's Attitudes," in The Cleft Palate Craniofacial Journal. About one in every 1600 babies in the US is born with both cleft lip and

In May 2017, Alice Lee, Fiona E. Gibbon, and Kimberley Spivey published "Children's Attitudes Toward Peers With Unintelligible Speech Associated With Cleft Lip and/or Palate," hereafter "Children's Attitudes," in The Cleft Palate Craniofacial Journal. About one in every 1600 babies in the US is born with both cleft lip and cleft palate, which are birth defects that can also occur independently. Those birth defects occur when the lip or roof of the mouth, also called the palate, do not fully develop during pregnancy. The condition often results in speech difficulties, even after children undergo surgery to repair their cleft palate. "Children's Attitudes" was one of the first articles investigating how different age groups of children judged their peers with speech difficulties who had undergone a cleft palate repair surgery. The authors found that peers' attitudes towards speech problems tended to be negative. "Children's Attitudes" concludes that judgment from peers can negatively affect children with speech difficulties and argues that increased public awareness of speech difficulties may reduce barriers that children with those difficulties face.

ContributorsRauch,Grace (Author) / Pillai, Megha (Editor)
Created2024-04-16